and threatening their economic

the EU initially underwhelmed in its engagement with these states as part of the European Green Deal. GCC capitals, in turn, were broadly hostile to a policy that they viewed as revolving around carbon taxation and threatening their economic survival, by focusing on a rapid phase-out of fossil fuels. But Russia’s all-out invasion of Ukraine changed the dynamics of energy geopolitics. The pressures of an imminent energy security crisis forced Europeans to become more attuned to GCC arguments that the energy transition should take place without major socio-economic instability. At the same time, while the GCC states intensified energy cooperation with Russia following the invasion, แทงบอล